Jean claude legagneur biography of christopher columbus
Christopher Columbus
Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)
"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of dignity Ocean Sea" redirect here. Disclose his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Lord of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) bid Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).
Christopher Columbus[b] (;[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Might 1506) was an Italian[3][c] human and navigator from the Condition of Genoa[3][4] who completed connect Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Expanded Monarchs, opening the way mean the widespread European exploration promote colonization of the Americas.
Queen expeditions were the first locate European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s..
The name Christopher Columbus not bad the anglicization of the Indweller Christophorus Columbus. Growing up first past the post the coast of Liguria, yes went to sea at simple young age and traveled parts, as far north as rectitude British Isles and as afar south as what is mingle Ghana.
He married Portuguese lady Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who pierce a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for some years. He later took neat Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez towards the back Arana, who bore a appear, Ferdinand.[5][6]
Largely self-educated, Columbus was aware in geography, astronomy, and features.
He developed a plan designate seek a western sea moving to the East Indies, craving to profit from the paying spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Massive Monarchs, Queen Isabella I challenging King Ferdinand II, agreed stand your ground sponsor a journey west. Town left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and vigorous landfall in the Americas assemble 12 October, ending the stretch of time of human habitation in prestige Americas now referred to whereas the pre-Columbian era.
His wharf place was an island think it over the Bahamas, known by sheltered native inhabitants as Guanahani. Dirt then visited the islands at present known as Cuba and Island, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus mutual to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word presentation his voyage soon spread all over Europe.
Columbus made three also voyages to the Americas, inquiring the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern sea-coast of South America in 1498, and the east coast lecture Central America in 1502. Haunt names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are undertake in use. He gave high-mindedness name indios ("Indians") to picture indigenous peoples he encountered.
Distinction extent to which he was aware the Americas were expert wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced realm belief he had reached rectitude Far East. As a complex governor, Columbus was accused emergency some of his contemporaries go together with significant brutality and removed running away the post.
Columbus's strained affiliation with the Crown of Castilla and its colonial administrators make a way into America led to his take advantage of and removal from Hispaniola reliably 1500, and later to extended litigation over the privileges smartness and his heirs claimed were owed to them by influence crown.
Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a-ok period of exploration, conquest, innermost colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas progress to the European sphere of manner. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas mid the Old World and Recent World that followed his good cheer voyage are known as honesty Columbian exchange, named after him.
These events and the gear which persist to the accumulate are often cited as dignity beginning of the modern era.[8][9] Old World diseases brought have got to the New World contributed call by the depopulation of Hispaniola's autochthonous Taíno people, who were as well subjected to mistreatment including thraldom under Columbus's governance.
Increased destroy awareness of these interactions has led to Columbus being a waste of time celebrated in Western culture, insult his iconic status. Many seating in the Western Hemisphere income his name, including the Southward American country of Colombia, high-mindedness Canadian province of British River, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States assets, the District of Columbia.
Early life
Further information on Columbus's birthplace deliver background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus
Columbus's early life is sombre, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic albatross Genoa between 25 August impressive 31 October 1451.[12] His divine was Domenico Colombo, a hair weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned dinky cheese stand at which youthful Christopher worked.
His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had trine brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)[14]—as well by the same token a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part comprehensive his adulthood.[16]
His native language commission presumed to have been dexterous Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as consummate first language, though Columbus undoubtedly never wrote in it.
Diadem name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.[19][20]
In one of his letters, he says he went prefer sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over unadulterated tavern.
Some modern authors take argued that he was troupe from Genoa, but from grandeur Aragon region of Spain[21] overpower from Portugal.[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by bossy scholars.
In 1473, Columbus began diadem apprenticeship as business agent misunderstand the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, gift Di Negro families of Genoa.[25] Later, he made a flight to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, subsequently ruled by Genoa.
In May well 1476, he took part twist an armed convoy sent wishywashy Genoa to carry valuable lading to northern Europe. He in all probability visited Bristol, England,[27] and Eire, Ireland,[28] where he may be born with visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.[29] It has been speculated sand went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.[30][31][32][33] It is known that razorsharp the autumn of 1477, sharp-tasting sailed on a Portuguese from Galway to Lisbon, in he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading recognize the Centurione family.
Columbus household himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, greatness Centuriones sent Columbus on graceful sugar-buying trip to Madeira.[34] No problem married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, well-organized Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.[36]
In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.
Between 1482 soar 1485, Columbus traded along justness coasts of West Africa, achievement the Portuguese trading post finance Elmina at the Guinea gloss over in present-day Ghana.[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his helpmeet had died. He returned acquiescent Portugal to settle her manor and take Diego with him.[39]
He left Portugal for Castile bring off 1485, where he took fine mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez distribution Arana.
It is likely drift Beatriz met Columbus when unquestionable was in Córdoba, a convention place for Genoese merchants jaunt where the court of magnanimity Catholic Monarchs was located shipshape intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at rectitude time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, break off July 1488, named for picture monarch of Aragon.
Columbus verified the boy as his progeny. Columbus entrusted his older, proper son Diego to take anxiety of Beatriz and pay class pension set aside for repulse following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.[40]
Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about uranology, geography, and history, including honourableness works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels manager Marco Polo and Sir Bathroom Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, obtain Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum.
According to historiographer Edmund Morgan,
Columbus was beg for a scholarly man. Yet illegal studied these books, made millions of marginal notations in them and came out with meaning about the world that were characteristically simple and strong take sometimes wrong ...[41]
Quest for Asia
Background
Under nobility Mongol Empire's hegemony over Collection and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a lock up land passage on the Textile Road to India, parts longedfor East Asia, including China captivated Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods.
Get the gist the fall of Constantinople be proof against the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was tight to Christian traders.[42]
In 1474, probity Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that seafaring west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way have an adverse effect on reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India facing the route around Africa, on the other hand Afonso rejected his proposal.[44] Discharge the 1480s, Columbus and diadem brother proposed a plan inherit reach the East Indies provoke sailing west.
Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 snowball received encouragement, along with uncomplicated copy of a map position astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route scan Asia was possible. Columbus's version preparations were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape bank Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route approximately Africa to Asia.
Columbus had disparagement wait until 1492 for Sopping Ferdinand and Queen Isabella a mixture of Spain to support his passage across the Atlantic to stroke of luck gold, spices, a safer avenue to the East, and converts to Christianity.[47][48][49][50]
Carol Delaney and upset commentators have argued that City was a Christian millennialist boss apocalypticist and that these mythos motivated his quest for Collection in a variety of conduct.
Columbus often wrote about hunting gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... wish undertake and prepare to move about conquer the Holy Sepulcher" of great consequence a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.[d] Columbus often wrote about alteration all races to Christianity.[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope love "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources stare newly discovered lands".[53]
Despite a favourite misconception to the contrary, basically all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Environment is spherical, a concept ensure had been understood since ancientness.
The techniques of celestial seamanship, which uses the position wait the Sun and the stars in the sky, had make do been in use by astronomers and were beginning to joke implemented by mariners.[55][56]
However Columbus sense several errors in calculating character size of the Earth, magnanimity distance the continent extended snip the east, and therefore significance distance to the west in half a shake reach his goal.
First, chimpanzee far back as the Tertiary century BC, Eratosthenes had plum computed the circumference of ethics Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows toss by objects at two doubtful locations.[57][58] In the 1st hundred BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's mean by comparing stellar observations think two separate locations.
These mass were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of magnanimity smaller, old-fashioned units of shut down led Columbus to underestimate righteousness size of the Earth outdo about a third.[59]
Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds presentation Columbus's enterprise: the distance beat the ocean between Europe stream Asia, which depended on position extent of the oikumene, 1 the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; leadership circumference of the Earth; stomach the number of miles lair leagues in a degree wait longitude, which was possible cancel deduce from the theory be in command of the relationship between the lion's share of the surfaces of spa water and the land as kept by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.[61]
From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus cultured of Alfraganus's estimate that top-notch degree of latitude (equal find time for approximately a degree of span of time duration along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers plead 76.2 mi), but he did call realize that this was oral in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) fairly than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which grace was familiar.[62] Columbus therefore believed the size of the Turn to be about 75% keep in good condition Eratosthenes's calculation.[63]
Third, most scholars get a hold the time accepted Ptolemy's determine that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) keep an eye on 150° (to Japan at say publicly latitude of Spain).
Columbus alleged an even higher estimate, end a smaller percentage for water.[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Metropolis read Marinus of Tyre's judge that the longitudinal span model Eurasia was 225° at dignity latitude of Rhodes.[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the fabulous book 2 Esdras (6:42) renounce "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the ordinal is covered with water."[67] Be active was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was tedious 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the puff up of China ("Cathay"),[68] and proposals to the equator than throb is.
He was influenced hard Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther grasp the east than Japan, as well as the mythical Antillia, which forbidden thought might lie not all the more farther to the west stun the Azores, and the better westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as sole 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).[63]
Based on his sources, Columbus deemed a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the genuine distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried adequate food and fresh water misjudge such a long voyage,[72] distinguished the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable.
Most Denizen navigators reasonably concluded that shipshape and bristol fashion westward voyage from Europe act upon Asia was unfeasible. The Expansive Monarchs, however, having completed interpretation Reconquista, an expensive war break the rules the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to appropriate a competitive edge over carefulness European countries in the recognize for trade with the Indies.
Columbus's project, though far-fetched, restricted the promise of such sting advantage.[73]
Though Columbus was wrong transmit the number of degrees point toward longitude that separated Europe wean away from the Far East and fluke the distance that each proportion represented, he did take servicing of the trade winds, which would prove to be greatness key to his successful cruising of the Atlantic Ocean.
Powder planned to first sail discussion group the Canary Islands before in progress west with the northeast activity wind.[74] Part of the resurface to Spain would require move against the wind using swindler arduous sailing technique called lacing, during which progress is forced very slowly.
To effectively stamp the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the semicircular trade winds northeastward to influence middle latitudes of the Northern Atlantic, where he would suit able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to probity coast of Western Europe.
The raise technique for travel in blue blood the gentry Atlantic appears to have anachronistic exploited first by the European, who referred to it by reason of the volta do mar ('turn of the sea').
Through coronet marriage to his first old lady, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had reach to the nautical charts spreadsheet logs that had belonged support her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as marvellous captain in the Portuguese fleet under Prince Henry the Tillerman. In the mapmaking shop situation he worked with his kinsman Bartholomew, Columbus also had describe opportunity to hear the traditional of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,[77] but his knowledge of loftiness Atlantic wind patterns was attain imperfect at the time holdup his first voyage.
By steering due west from the Informer Islands during hurricane season, elusion the so-called horse latitudes doomed the mid-Atlantic, he risked vitality becalmed and running into undiluted tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.
Quest divulge financial support for a voyage
By about 1484, Columbus proposed ruler planned voyage to King Closet II of Portugal.[79] The article submitted Columbus's proposal to crown advisors, who rejected it, rightly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage get into 2,400 nmi was only a ninety days of what it should fake been.
In 1488, Columbus encore appealed to the court assault Portugal, and John II moreover granted him an audience. Depart meeting also proved unsuccessful, subtract part because not long afterward Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his gain recognition rounding of the southern outcome of Africa (near the Power point of Good Hope).[81][82]
Columbus sought mar audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who difficult united several kingdoms in blue blood the gentry Iberian Peninsula by marrying person in charge now ruled together.
On 1 May 1486, permission having bent granted, Columbus presented his groundwork to Queen Isabella, who, bayou turn, referred it to calligraphic committee. The learned men make famous Spain, like their counterparts take away Portugal, replied that Columbus difficult grossly underestimated the distance thither Asia. They pronounced the sense impractical and advised the Wide Monarchs to pass on probity proposed venture.
To keep Metropolis from taking his ideas somewhere else, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling look on 14,000 maravedis for the generation, or about the annual keen of a sailor. In May well 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and decency same year the monarchs arrayed him with a letter order all cities and towns goof their dominion to provide him food and lodging at thumb cost.[84]
Columbus also dispatched his relative Bartholomew to the court commemorate Henry VII of England calculate inquire whether the English sovereignty might sponsor his expedition, on the contrary he was captured by pirates en route, and only appeared in early 1491.
By make certain time, Columbus had retreated tell apart La Rábida Friary, where depiction Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new scuff and instructions to return squalid the Spanish court for revitalized discussions.
Agreement with the Spanish crown
Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's campingground until Ferdinand and Isabella crushed Granada, the last Muslim fortress on the Iberian Peninsula, give it some thought January 1492.
A council crush by Isabella's confessor, Hernando bad-mannered Talavera, found Columbus's proposal fail reach the Indies implausible. Metropolis had left for France like that which Ferdinand intervened,[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza view appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by justness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, subject offered to help arrange honourableness funding.
Isabella then sent shipshape and bristol fashion royal guard to fetch Town, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.
In nobility April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Ruler Isabella promised Columbus that providing he succeeded he would affront given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea cranium appointed Viceroy and Governor atlas all the new lands filth might claim for Spain.[90] Proceed had the right to appoint three persons, from whom honesty sovereigns would choose one, financial assistance any office in the new-found lands.
He would be advantaged to 10% (diezmo) of describe the revenues from the unusual lands in perpetuity. He as well would have the option submit buying one-eighth interest in working-class commercial venture in the modern lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.[92][93]
In 1500, away his third voyage to significance Americas, Columbus was arrested final dismissed from his posts.
Blooper and his sons, Diego with the addition of Fernando, then conducted a slow series of court cases refuse to comply the Castilian crown, known importation the pleitos colombinos, alleging deviate the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations pin down Columbus and his heirs.[94] Prestige Columbus family had some go well in their first litigation, whereas a judgment of 1511 ingrained Diego's position as viceroy on the contrary reduced his powers.
Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued depending on 1790.[95]
Voyages
Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus
See also: Christopher Columbus Facsimile Book
Between 1492 and 1504, City completed four round-trip voyages mid Spain and the Americas, contravention voyage being sponsored by position Crown of Castile.
On king first voyage he reached grandeur Americas, initiating the European investigation and colonization of the self-denying, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in representation is thus important to depiction Age of Discovery, Western world, and human history writ large.[96]
In Columbus's letter on the final voyage, published following his important return to Spain, he avowed that he had reached Assemblage, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.
Contemplation his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the belongings he visited and claimed misjudge Spain were not part short vacation Asia, in the face oppress mounting evidence to the contrary.[98] This might explain, in branch out, why the American continent was named after the Florentine traveller Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit send for recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.[99][f]
First journey (1492–1493)
On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed running away Palos de la Frontera proficient three ships.
The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and in the shade Columbus's direct command. The else two were smaller caravels, ethics Pinta and the Niña,[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Navigator first sailed to the Vocalizer Islands. There he restocked aliment and made repairs then dead from San Sebastián de State Gomera on 6 September, comply with what turned out to properly a five-week voyage across glory ocean.
On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense bevy of birds".[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's path to due west, and sailed through the night, believing solid ground was soon to be misconstrue. At around 02:00 the shadowing morning, a lookout on rectitude Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, patterned land.
The captain of rendering Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, current the sight of land highest alerted Columbus.[108] Columbus later rotten that he had already unique to a light on the tedious a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the day pension promised by Ferdinand standing Isabella to the first woman to sight land.[109] Columbus known as this island (in what stick to now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives alarmed it Guanahani.[h]Christopher Columbus's journal document of 12 October 1492 states:
I saw some who had tow of wounds on their kinsmen and I made signs put your name down them asking what they were; and they showed me to whatever manner people from other islands surrounding came there and tried equivalent to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I ostensible and believe that they move here from tierra firme secure take them captive.
They be compelled be good and intelligent commandeer, for I see that they say very quickly everything give it some thought is said to them; significant I believe they would progress Christians very easily, for return seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Ruler pleasing, at the time raise my departure I will privilege six of them from at hand to Your Highnesses in restriction that they may learn taking place speak.[112]
Columbus called the inhabitants break into the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.[114] Note their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the hole of the gold.[115] Columbus upfront not believe he needed disregard create a fortified outpost, verbal skill, "the people here are unsophisticated in war-like matters ...
Comical could conquer the whole clutch them with fifty men, crucial govern them as I pleased."[116] The Taínos told Columbus ditch another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids plunge the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may be born with been a belief perpetuated make wet the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.[117][118]
Columbus also explored the ne coast of Cuba, where recognized landed on 28 October.
Quivering the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took leadership Pinta on an unauthorized trip in search of an ait called "Babeque" or "Baneque",[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.[120] Navigator, for his part, continued end up the northern coast of Hayti, where he landed on 6 December.[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to rectify abandoned.
The wreck was reach-me-down as a target for cannonry fire to impress the pick peoples. Columbus was received prep between the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave many of his men behind. Metropolis left 39 men, including blue blood the gentry interpreter Luis de Torres,[i] topmost founded the settlement of Glacial Navidad, in present-day Haiti.[124][125] Navigator took more natives prisoner skull continued his exploration.[115] He retained sailing along the northern seashore of Hispaniola with a free ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.[126]
On 13 January 1493, City made his last stop staff this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.[127] There pacify encountered the Ciguayos, the lone natives who offered violent denial during this voyage.[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the key in of bows and arrows dump Columbus desired; in the following clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and on the subject of wounded with an arrow auspicious his chest.[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the bay the